Acquiring Knowledge for L2 Use

I

Introduction

A.  Background

This paper is composed for continuing the consideration of the acquisition of communicative competence by examining the knowledge that is needed for second language use. Furthermore, to discuss for distinguishing between: (1) knowledge must be learned in order to fulfill academic functions and (2) knowledge required for interpersonal functions. Areas of knowledge needed are then categorized and prioritized according to tradition levels of language and according to activity type. Thus, this paper brings together and integrates the elements of SLA study that has been exploring in the previous paper.

B.  The formulation of The Paper

The formulation of this paper is formulated into three questions, namely:

1.   What do competence and use mean? Explain each of them

2.   What do academic vs. interpersonal competence mean? Explain each of them

3.   What are components of language knowledge? Explain each of them

4.   What do receptive activities mean? Explain each of them

5.   What do productive activities mean? Explain each of them

C.  The aims of The paper

The aims of this paper are divided into three points, namely:

1.      To define competence and use

2.      To discuss academic vs. interpersonal competence

3.      To explain components of language knowledge

4.      To define receptive activities

5.      To explain productive activities

II

Discussion

Acquiring Knowledge for L2 Use

A.     Competence and Use

The definition of the communicative competence has explained in the previous paper is broadly inclusive in scope: “everything that a speaker needs to know in order to communicate appropriately within a particular community.” (Saville-Troike2003).

This construct combines the knowledge of language which defines linguistic competence, knowledge of the specific components and levels of a language, and knowledge that is required for their appropriate use in communicative activities. Accounting for competence in this broader sense also requires considering “encyclopedic” cultural knowledge concerning the content of what is written or talked about, and recognizing the social significance of the context within which language use takes place.

The ability to use language appropriately includes pragmatic competence. This can be defined as what people must know in order to interpret and convey meaning within communicative situations: knowledge that accounts for “the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction, and the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication” (Crystal 1997a:301)

The knowledge that an L2 learner begins with includes everything that he or she has previously acquired as part of his or her general cognitive development and prior social experience, as well as in his or her acquisition of L1.

B.     Academic Vs. Interpersonal Competence

L1 competence ideally involves the broad repertoire of knowledge which people need to communicate appropriately for many purposes within their native language community. L2 competence is typically, perhaps unavoidably, much more restricted, especially when SLA takes place in a foreign language setting. For most people, their second language often serves a much more limited range of needs than their first language, depending on the situation they are in. For example, native speakers of English in the USA might learn Spanish L2 because their jobs require engaging in cross-national sales and services, or because they are in social service roles which involve daily communication with native Spanish speakers, or because they have academic interests in New World history and need access to archival records and scholarly publications that are available in Spanish.

·         Priorities for L2 use

In considering the purposes for which people learn second languages, we must make a distinction between at least two fundamental types of communicative competence: academic competence and interpersonal competence.

Academic competence: The knowledge neeeded by learners who want to use the L2 primarily to learn about other subjects, or as a tool in scholarly research, or as a medium in a specific professsional or occupational field.

Interpersonal competence: Knowledge required of learners who plan to use the L2 primarily in face-to-face contact with other speakers.

As with academic competence, vocabulary is the most important level of language knowledge for these learners to acquire, although the domains of vocabulary involved are likely to be very different. Knowledge which enables them to participate in listening and speaking activities merit the highest priority for interpersonal contexts; they must be able to process language rapidly “online” (without the opportunity to review or revise text that is possible in reading and writing), as well as possess strategies for achieving clarification and negotiation of meaning during the course of face-to-face interaction. Depending on the situation, the level of language to be used may be formal or informal. Writing and reading activities are required in some interpersonal situations, but speaking and listening are much more likely to play dominant roles in interpersonal production and interpretation.

Priorities for L2 use
Academic competence	Interpersonal competence
1.      Reading 2.      Listening 3.      Writing 4.      Speaking	1.      Listening 2.      Speaking 3.      Reading 4.      Writing

Classification of activities involving language use
	Written mode	Oral mode
Receptive	Reading	Listening
Productive	Writing	Speaking

The activities that have highest priority in academic competence are receptive (reading and listening), which function primarily in processing input; the activities with highest priority for interpersonal competence are oral (listening and speaking), which function in processing both input and expression. While all four areas of communicative activity draw on an overlapping pool of L2 knowledge at different language levels, they are independent to some extent.

Learners’ academic and interpersonal competences which underlie their ability to engage in these activities usually develop to different degrees, and there is no necessary reason for one type to precede or outpace the other. It is known, however, that literacy (and schooling) in the L1 facilitates acquisition of competence in an L2 under conditions of formal instruction.

C.    Component of Language Knowledge

Linguists have traditionally divided language into the following five components for purposes of description and analysis. They are as follows:

a.       Vocabulary (lexicon)

b.      Morphology (word structure)

c.       Phonology (sound system)

d.      Syntax (grammar)

e.       Discourse (ways to connect sentences and organize information)

Determining the specific L2 needs of any group of learners involves identifying what subset of linguistic elements is associated with the varieties (or registers) of a language that are used in particular situations. In recent years, much of this task has been carried out using computerized analyses of “corpora,” or large collections of written and spoken texts (e.g. Biber, Conrad, and Reppen 1998).

a.      Vocabulary

Vocabulary (or lexicon) is the most important level of L2 knowledge for all learners to develop whether they are aiming primarily for academic or interpersonal competence, or for a broader scope of communicative competence that spans the two. There is a core of high-frequency words in a language that everyone needs to learn, but beyond that, which specific vocabulary elements learners are most likely to need depends on whether the L2 is going to be used primarily for academic or interpersonal functions.

The core vocabulary in every language includes function words, a limited set of terms that carry primarily grammatical information. For example, in English the most frequently used words include: determiners the, that, this; prepositions to, of, for; conjunctions and, but; pronouns I, it, he, she, you; and auxiliary verbs is/was/be, have/has/had. The most frequently used words in spoken (but not written) English also include interjections yeah, oh; contractions it’s, that’s, don’t; and verbs expressing personal opinion or feeling know, like, think.

English words that occur with high frequency in a wide range of academic (but not interpersonal) contexts include modifiers such as analytical, explanatory, and implicit, as well as names for scientific concepts such as data, hypotheses, and correlation. Other general academic vocabulary items from written texts have been compiled in the University Word List (Xue and Nation 1984).

Vocabulary knowledge is acquired to different degrees, with learners first recognizing words they see or hear, then producing them in limited contexts, and ultimately (perhaps) fully controlling their accurate and appropriate use. L2 speakers may never acquire complete knowledge of some words that nevertheless become part of their productive repertoire. Among the last types of word knowledge to be mastered are collocation behavior (what words go together), metaphorical uses (a thing regarded as symbolic of something else), connotations associated with synonyms, and stylistic register constraints (see Nation 1990).

The following types of knowledge contribute to effective use of context for vocabulary learning (Nagy 1997):

·         Linguistic knowledge: syntactic information; constraints on possible word meanings; patterns in word structure; meanings of surrounding words.

·         World knowledge: understanding of the concepts which the words represent; familiarity with related conceptual frameworks; awareness of social associations.

·         Strategic knowledge: control over cognitive (acquiring knowledge through thought, experience and the sense) resources.

b.      Morphology

L2 learning at the level of morphology (or word structure) can be very important for vocabulary development as well as for achieving grammatical accuracy. This level is highly significant for learning English, for instance, where thousands of words are formed by compounding smaller words (e.g. wind _ shield _ windshield [British windscreen]) or by adding prefixes and suffixes (called derivational morphology) that can create new meanings (e.g. un- _ kind _ unkind) or change part of speech (e.g. friend [noun] _ -ly _ friendly [adjective])

c.       Phonology

Mastery of the L2 sound system was considered the first priority for teaching and learning during the middle of the twentieth century (as expressed in the writing of Fries 1945).

As a component of academic competence, proficiency in phonological perception is required for listening if learners are studying other subjects through the medium of L2, and at least intelligible pronunciation is needed for speaking in most educational settings

As a component of interpersonal competence, proficiency in phonological perception and intelligible production are essential for successful spoken communication, but a significant degree of “foreign accent” is acceptable in most situations as long as it is within the bounds of intelligibility.

The following aspects of the sound systems are likely to differ for L1 and L2. They are as follows:

·         Which speech sounds are meaningful components of the phonological system (phonemes)

·         Possible sequences of consonants and vowels (phonotactics)

·         Which speech sounds can and cannot occur in combination with one another, in which syllable and word positions

·         Intonation patterns (stress, pitch, and duration)

·         Rhythmic patterns (pauses and stops)

d.      Syntax

Depending on the theoretical linguistic perspective one takes (Chapter 3), acquiring the syntax of another language may be seen as an issue of internalizing new construction patterns, generative rules, different parameters for innate principles, or collocational probabilities and constraints.

 For example:

S V O English, Chinese, French, Russian

S O V Japanese, Turkish, Persian, Finnish

V S O Irish, Welsh, Samoan, Zapotec

(German is unusual in having a mixed system, since the word order is SVO in main clauses and SOV in subordinate clauses.)

e.       Discourse

Linguistic elements at the level of discourse function beyond the scope of a single sentence. At a microstructural discourse level these include sequential indicators, logical connectors, and other devices to create cohesion. At a macrostructural discourse level we go beyond linguistic elements to knowledge of organizational features that are characteristic of particular genres, and of interactional strategies. Both microstructural and macrostructural levels are sensitive to the relationship between language forms and the communicative situations within which they are used, requiring an essential interface of linguistic knowledge with content, culture, and context. Genre is conventionalized categories and types of discourse.

Sequential indicators are linguistic elements that connect phrases, clauses, or longer units of written or spoken text to signal the order in which events take place. Cohesion devices link one element of discourse to another, integrating them into a unified text. They include many of the sequential indicators and logical connectors that are listed above, but also such ties as pronominal and lexical reference, substitution, and ellipsis. The most frequently cited typology of English devices is by Halliday and Hasan (1976). Initially, cohesion is linguistic marking of links between elements of a text. These provide unity and consistency of thought, logic, and structure.

Development of the ability to use elements of L2 discourse appropriately is not unlike the development of other elements of interlanguage. It takes place gradually and systematically, and many errors in production can be attributed to either transfer of L1 knowledge in using the L2 or to developmental patterns within the L2 (e.g. Ellis 1997). And as with the other elements, the nature and amount of input to learners largely determines the degree of proficiency that they will attain. The development of academic discourse competence requires reading and hearing an ample number of academic texts within meaningful contexts, and it benefits from feedback on the appropriateness of written production. Development of interpersonal discourse competence requires opportunity for social interaction and the input and feedback that it produces.

D.    Receptive Activities

Receptive activities are L2 use that involves interpreting the meaning of others by reading or listening. Learners must actively participate in creating meaning from L2 input, or else writing remains merely marks on paper and speech remains only a stream of noise that people emit through their mouths. Successful SLA requires active engagement.

Comprehension of written or spoken language involves both bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing requires prior knowledge of the language system (i.e. vocabulary, morphology, phonology, syntax, and discourse structure) and interpretation of physical (graphic and auditory) cues. At early stages of learning, bottom-up processing is limited to visual or auditory recognition of the limited set of words and word combinations that have been acquired thus far, and of simple grammatical sequences. When L2 input significantly exceeds these limits, understanding is likely to be fragmentary. Top-down processing can compensate for linguistic limitations to some extent by allowing learners to guess the meaning of words they have not encountered before, and to make some sense out of larger chunks of written and oral text. For both L1 and L2 speakers, top-down processing utilizes prior knowledge of content, context, and culture.

Content knowledge is background information about the topic that is being read about or listened to; new information is perceived and interpreted in relation to this base. Context knowledge includes information learned from what has already been read or heard in a specific text or situation, as well as an understanding of what the writer’s or speaker’s intentions are, and the overall structure of the discourse pattern being used. Culture knowledge subsumes content and context in many ways but also includes an understanding of the wider social setting within which acts of reading and listening take place. All types of pre-existing knowledge that readers and listeners bring to the interpretation of text contribute to their schemas. Schemas is mental structures that map the expected patterns of objects and events.

a.      Reading

Reading is the most important area of activity for individuals to engage in for the development of L2 academic competence, and it is important as well for interpersonal functions and for merely “getting along” in any literate society. For many learners, reading is the primary channel for L2 input and a major source of exposure to associated literature and other aspects of the L2 culture.

b.      Listening

Listening accounts for most of the language input for L1 acquisition by children, but L2 learners often have much less opportunity to hear the target language and therefore receive proportionally less input via this channel.  Listening is a critically important activity, however, both for learners who want or need to participate in oral interpersonal communication and for learners who want or need to receive information from such oral sources as lectures and media broadcasts.

E.     Productive Activities

Productive activities are L2 use that involves communicating the meaning of others by writing or speaking. Productive activities for language use involve essentially the same top-down and bottom-up processes as those for reception.  Production (like comprehension) of written or spoken language requires prior knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, phonology, syntax, and discourse structure to access words and combine them into phrases, clauses, and longer units of text.  The relatively limited knowledge of L2 learners at early language learning levels can cause problems in production (as well as interpretation) of meaning, although productive and receptive abilities are in some ways independent of one another.  In top-down processing, prior knowledge of content is the substance of information that a writer or speaker wishes to communicate; knowledge of context accounts for writers’ and speakers’ ability to select from potential linguistic options those which are appropriate to a specific communicative situation, including what should (or should out) be written or said next; prior knowledge of culture includes cultural conventions for language use.

a.      Writing

Writing is the most important productive activity for L2 learners to develop if they will use the language for academic purpose, or in certain types of service functions (e.g. providing reports to supervisors or clients).  Writing is a common medium for testing knowledge in much of the world-including knowledge of the L2 itself, even within instructional programs that emphasize oral production.  L2 speakers who pursue degrees in L2-medium universities typically must display a high level of writing proficiency through standardized entrance examinations and writing samples that are evaluated by admissions committees. Graduate degrees usually require writing extended texts (theses or dissertations), and many disciplines expect advanced students and graduates to publish their work in L2-medium journals and books.

      Many professions and occupations also require a high level of L2 proficiency in writing for purposes of formal correspondence or for preparing applications and reports.  Advanced L2 ability is also required for journalistic and creative purposes when writers wish to reach a wider audience. In addition to fulfilling academic and interpersonal functions, the process or writing itself is potentially important because of how it may contribute to successful L2 learning. 

b.      Speaking

Speaking (in conjunction with listening) is a very important area of activity for L2 learners if they will be using by language for interpersonal purposes, whether these are primarily social or instrumental.  There is need for speaking in virtually all situations where L2 learners participate in the L2 speech community: tourist generally need to ask directions and seek information about hotels and entertainment; immigrants need to shop for goods, seek service, and describe symptoms in case of health problems; foreign students and other temporary residents need to negotiate transactions for housing, utilities, and currency exchange, as well as to express themselves in an academic or professional speech genre.

The language knowledge involved bottom-up processes for speech production includes appropriate vocabulary, features of pronunciation, grammatical patterns that will convey intended meaning, and understanding of discourse structure that will provide cohesion and coherence within a conversation or other spoken communicative event.  The top-down processes simultaneously involved in speech production require content knowledge about a topic, cultural knowledge that informs determination of proprieties and provides macrosocial content for expression, and knowledge of microsocial context such as the significance of the immediate communicative activity, speaker role and relationship to addresses, and appropriateness conditions (e.g. what must be said, what may be said, and what should be left unsaid).

As with listening, speaking tasks can be classified on a continuum from reciprocal to non-reciprocal communication.  Participation in face-to-face interpersonal interaction is at the reciprocal end of this continuum, and delivering lectures or conference presentations is close to the non-reciprocal end.  Reciprocal communication requires learners to listen as well as to speak, and to collaborate in the negotiation of meaning.  Unlike listening, non-reciprocal spoken communication places lighter requirement on the speaker for processing “online” or in real time than reciprocal, since there is usually time for preplanning.  Indeed, the L2 learners may even read aloud a paper which has been written beforehand. Speech acts is utterances that serve to accomplish the speakers’ goals, such as requesting, apologizing, promising, denying, expression emotion, complaining, etc. Contextualization cues are elements of communication that allow people to express and iterpret meaning beyond the referential meaning which the surface structure of the message provides. Cues may involve any of the linguistic knowledge we have considered, including speaker selection of vocabulary and pronunciation, prosody (intonation and stress), and rhythmic patterns (pauses and stops). Communication strategies is learner techniques of compensating for limitations in their L2 linguistic resources, such as repairing misunderstanding or sustaining interpersonal interaction.

III

Conclusion

Second language communicative competence involves both knowledge of linguistics elements and the knowledge that is required for appropriate L2 use in different contexts. What must be acquired in learning an L2 can vary as much as the goals for learning. Learning L2 can be facilitated or made more difficulty by degrees of similarity or difference between L1 and L2 phonology, grammar, vocabulary, system of writing, and rules for social use. Furthermore, there are five components of language knowledge. They are vocabulary (lexicon) morphology (word structure), syntax (grammar), discourse (ways to connect sentences and organize information). In addition, there are two types of activities in acquiring for L2 use. They are receptive activities (reading and listening) and productive activities (writing and speaking).

 REFERENCES

Gass, S. M., & L. Selinker. 2008. Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. (3^nd Edition). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Herschensohn, Julia, and Martha Young-Scholten. 2013. The Cambridge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.

Saville-Troike, M. 2006. Introducing Second Language Acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press.